IB Sports, Exercise and Health Science (2026) Syllabus

The nervous system senses both internal and external conditions to coordinate the responses of the body’s physiological systems effectively.
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
The efferent division is subdivided into the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system.
The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems.
Examples of the functions of each are required:
• cardiac function, which includes an understanding of the role of extrinsic factors and how they work with the intrinsic mechanisms controlling heart rate
• breathing and ventilation
• temperature control.
Proprioceptors, baroreceptors and chemoreceptors are specialized cells that respond to stimuli to initiate responses by the nervous system. The internal function of the various receptors is not assessed.

The endocrine system, made up of the body’s glands and hormones, regulates all biological processes in the body.
Hormones are mediator molecules that are released in one part of the body but regulate the activity of cells in other parts of the body.
Epinephrine and norepinephrine cause changes in blood pressure, heart rate and blood sugar levels.
Insulin and glucagon regulate blood sugar concentration.
Antidiuretic hormone regulates water retention in the kidney.
Reproductive hormones impact health and athletic performance in the following ways:
• progesterone—a thermogenic effect on thermoregulation and sleep quality, and an effect on fuel availability
• oestrogen—effects on sparing glycogen and joint stiffness
• testosterone—effects on bone formation, protein synthesis and erythropoietin.

Homeostasis is any self-regulating biological process aiming to produce a relatively stable, constant internal environment for optimal functioning of the body. In response to changing internal and external conditions, various mechanisms work constantly towards homeostasis.
Homeostasis generally occurs via negative feedback mechanisms that reverse a change back to a controlled condition.
Blood pH (hydrogen ion concentration) is influenced by carbon dioxide concentration. pH is monitored through the respiratory control centre of the brain and chemoreceptors throughout the body.
Regulation of the heart is dependent on intrinsic and extrinsic excitation. A diagram of the heart’s structure is found in the SEHS data booklet.
Regulation of temperature (thermoregulation) relies on the cardiovascular, muscular, nervous and integumentary systems working together to maintain a core body temperature of 37 ± 1°C.
Thermoregulation occurs via the sweat response, vasodilation, vasoconstriction, shivering and non-shivering thermogenesis.
Factors that affect thermoregulation are training status, body composition, environment and sex differences (including hormonal phases).
Regulation of blood glucose relies on insulin and glucagon. Exercise limits the release of insulin and facilitates the uptake of glucose to regulate blood sugar levels.

The body has acute and possible long-term responses to the environment in which it functions.
Short-term responses and long-term adaptations in the body can vary in response to the external environment (temperature, humidity, altitude).
The extent to which the environment impacts performance of an activity depends on the nature of the activity.
Different strategies can be used to support performance of an activity and acclimatize the body to variations in the immediate environment.

The cardiovascular system transports nutrients, hormones, gases, heat and waste to perform necessary bodily functions.
Heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, blood pressure and blood redistribution vary, and depend on factors such as age, sex differences, body size, level of fitness, type of activity and intensity of activity.
A diagram of the cardiovascular system is found in the SEHS data booklet.

The respiratory system enables the exchange of gases between the external environment and the body, to facilitate cellular respiration.
The mechanics of breathing enable gaseous exchange to support health and performance. Minute ventilation, tidal volume and change in respiration rate can vary, and depend on factors such as age, sex differences, body size, level of fitness, type of activity and intensity of activity.
A diagram of the respiratory system is found in the SEHS data booklet.

Water and electrolyte balance is necessary for effective functioning of the body and is influenced by the environment.
Water and electrolyte intake occurs via the large intestine. Loss of fluids and electrolytes occurs via evaporation through the skin and the respiratory tract, and excretion via osmosis.
Dehydration, hypernatremia and hyponatremia are three states that can occur if water and electrolyte balance is not maintained. This will affect health and performance.
Water and electrolyte balance can be measured in a variety of ways, including body weight, urine colour and osmolarity.
Electrolyte balance is regulated by the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and kidneys. Knowledge of the function of the nephron and the structure of the kidneys are not assessed.
Cardiovascular drift is caused by water loss from the body or an increase in core body temperature during a prolonged steady state of submaximal (or aerobic) exercise in thermoneutral and hot environments.

Macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins and lipids) provide sources of energy to maintain bodily functions during growth, rest and physical activity.
Relative contributions of macronutrients to bodily functions depend on an individual’s body composition, age, sex differences and activity level.
The availability of macronutrients and their metabolization within our body influences health and performance.
Nutritional strategies related to macronutrient consumption prior to and during exercise can affect gastrointestinal comfort and sporting performance. These can be adjusted for the specific demands of the activity and the sportsperson’s sex differences, age and activity level.
Low energy availability (LEA) is a state in which the body has insufficient energy to support physiological functions needed for optimal health. Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) is a consequence of prolonged LEA.

Micronutrients play highly specific roles in facilitating energy transfer and tissue synthesis.
Iron is a component of haemoglobin and myoglobin, and helps both of them to transport oxygen for aerobic respiration.
Calcium is a component of bone and connective tissue and plays a role in muscle contraction.
Sodium and potassium are electrolytes that are essential to maintain water balance and proper muscle and nerve function.
Vitamins support tissue synthesis and act as regulators of metabolic reactions, which release energy. Specific knowledge of individual vitamins is not assessed.

The gut microbiome influences the health and performance of an individual.
Genetics, diet, medications and lifestyle influence the microbiome.
The gut microbiome affects the availability and uptake of nutrients, and therefore health and performance.

The body relies on the phosphagen, glycolytic and oxidative systems for energy production to sustain life and physical activity.
The energy systems have different fuel sources for ATP production, recovery capabilities, benefits and limitations during physical activity.
The energy continuum aids in describing the relative contribution of each energy system depending on the nature of the activity.
While at rest, and during extended periods of submaximal intensity, the oxidative system is the dominant supplier of ATP to support the body’s activities.
During both short- and high-intensity periods, and sudden increases of intensity, anaerobic ATP production (phosphagen and anaerobic glycolysis) supports the body’s functions.
Knowledge of biochemical details of the Krebs’s cycle and the electron transport chain are not assessed.

Maximal oxygen consumption ($VO_2$ max) is influenced by an individual’s age, sex differences, body composition, lifestyle factors and level of fitness.
Endurance performance is affected by $VO_2$ max and efficiency of movement, e.g. running economy.

The lactate inflection point is the maximum intensity at which the body can metabolize lactate at the same rate as its production.

Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) is required for the body to return to homeostasis and is dependent on the oxygen deficit incurred during exercise. EPOC is typically divided into two subsections: fast and slow.

The quality of training design and programme design are essential elements in developing a safe and effective programme for improving health or performance.
Common training principles direct programme design. These are: specificity, progressive overload (frequency, intensity and duration), recovery (rest principle), variety, reversibility and periodization.
Measuring baseline values and progress are important components of design.
Macrocycles, mesocycles and microcycles impact athletic performance.
An athlete’s adaptive responses to training will depend on the intensity and methods (anaerobic and aerobic) of training utilized, and well as inter-individual differences such as genetics (responders versus non-responders).
Training programmes need to consider:
• the individual’s current level of fitness
• age and sex differences (including reproductive status)
• hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle, based on an arbitrary natural 28-day cycle (a diagram of the menstrual cycle is found in the SEHS data booklet)
• the phase of the macrocycle.
Non-functional overreaching, and overtraining, are possible consequences of poorly designed or poorly maintained programmes.

An active lifestyle supports physical well-being.
A healthy level of physical activity for an individual varies with factors such as age and sex differences.
The basic components of energy balance include energy intake, energy consumption and energy storage.
Physical activity can positively or negatively affect muscular and immune system function.
The risk of developing osteoporosis, obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes can be reduced through an active lifestyle. Knowledge of ossification and osteoblasts is not assessed.

Prescribing exercise for health and sporting performance needs careful consideration and planning.
Exercise intensity should progress appropriately to avoid injury risk.
For physical and mental health, the appropriateness of certain exercises for specific target groups needs to be considered. These include children and adolescents, older adults and individuals who are pregnant.

Fatigue can originate at different levels of the motor or energy pathway, possibly combining a variety of sources.
Insufficient fuel availability, including phosphocreatine depletion, and liver and muscle glycogen depletion, can contribute to fatigue.
Variations in concentration of sodium and potassium ions, acidosis, and the accumulation of inorganic phosphate, can also contribute to fatigue.
Dehydration or hyperthermia impact the cardiovascular system and can lead to performance impairment.

Recovery from exercise.
Signs of recovery from exercise include:
• physiological indicators—for example, reduced blood lactate concentration
• symptomatic indicators—for example, reduced muscle soreness
• psychological indicators—for example, improved preparedness for the next session or competition.
Evaluation of nutritional strategies for recovery. These can include consumption of:
• water
• macronutrients—including protein and carbohydrates—which depend on the activity goal
• creatine monohydrate
• polyphenol-rich foods.
Evaluation of recovery techniques such as myofascial release, wearing compression garments and thermotherapy.
Evaluation of sleep for recovery.
• The quality of sleep can affect both recovery and performance. The amount of sleep required beyond general recommendations is dependent on the training load.
• Travel, both across and within time zones, may affect sleep quality. There are methods that describe practices for adjusting sleep habits.

The human skeleton is divided into an axial component and an appendicular component. These have different primary functions.
Positional terminology is used to describe the relative positions of body parts. For example: superior, inferior, proximal, distal, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral and intermediate.
A diagram of the skeletal system is found in the SEHS data booklet.

Movements occur in one or more planes, and rotations occur along one or more axes.
Movements are described by a set of specific terms: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, pronation, supination, protraction, retraction, opposition, reposition, inversion, eversion, elevation, depression, circumduction, rotation, plantarflexion, dorsiflexion, horizontal flexion and horizontal extension.
A diagram of the major planes is found in the SEHS data booklet.

Anthropometry, the measurement of body segments and proportions of the human body, has applications in many areas of sport and health science.
Anthropometric databases are used by equipment manufacturers for the design and sizing of equipment.
Ergonomic design improves efficiency during performance.

The structure of connective tissues and joints are related to their function in enabling movement.
Connective tissues—bone, ligaments, cartilage, fascia and tendons—have functions that increase stability and permit movement.
The three main types of articulations—fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial—have different structures and functions.
The various types of joints, and classes of synovial joints, vary in the amount of stability and movement they provide.
Knowledge at the cellular level is not assessed.

The body uses different types of muscular contractions to create movement and stability. Each type of contraction has a different function.
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter stimulating skeletal muscle contraction.
Muscles are organized in functional groupings called motor units that contract using the all-or-none principle.
Muscular contraction requires the metabolism of ATP within the muscle cells.
Motor units are differentiated by fibre type and neuron diameter: types I, IIa and IIx. Their recruitment patterns vary depending on the activity.
Hypertrophy and atrophy of muscle can cause alterations in a motor unit recruitment pattern.
Contractions can be described in four different ways: isometric, isotonic concentric, isotonic eccentric and isokinetic.
Muscles usually function in pairs, and act with reciprocal inhibition: their pairings are agonist and antagonist.

The sliding filament theory describes the interaction between myofilaments and the molecules responsible for sarcomere or muscle contraction.
Calcium, ATP and the proteins actin, myosin, troponin and tropomyosin have specific roles.
Diagrams of a sarcomere and a muscle fibre are found in the SEHS data booklet.

Three different classes of levers, both within and outside the human body, work to create movements.
The relative positions of the effort, fulcrum and load determine the class, and the mechanical advantage and disadvantage, of the lever.
Levers inside the body work to create movement. They can be used to project an object that is outside the body or be used as an implement.
Levers outside the body can be used to enhance the functionality of movement in a physical activity or to enhance performance.

Linear and angular motion can be analysed using Newton's laws of motion.
The motion of an object can be described using speed, velocity and acceleration.
The resultant motion of an object is determined by the sum of the forces acting on it.
The following principles relate to applications of Newton's laws.
• Stability—factors affecting stability include the height of the centre of mass relative to the supporting surface, the size of the support base, the position of the line of gravity relative to the support base and the mass.
• The principle of summing joint forces.
• Linear motion—the greater the impulse applied, the greater the change in linear momentum.
• The principle of impulse direction.
• Angular motion—this is produced by the application of a force acting at a distance from the centre of mass: an eccentric force.
• Angular momentum is conserved when an athlete or object is free of additional eccentric forces.
The equations for speed, linear velocity, angular velocity, acceleration and linear momentum are found in the SEHS data booklet.
The equation for force and weight is found in the SEHS data booklet.
The use of trigonometry is not assessed. Calculations are limited to three terms for SL and to four terms for HL.

A collision results in a change in momentum in the colliding bodies.
The change in momentum is equal to the impulse applied to the object.
Collisions involving a ball are affected by its coefficient of restitution.
The equation of coefficient of restitution is found in the SEHS data booklet.
Calculations in assessment will be limited to one dimension.

The force of friction is determined by the coefficient of friction.
The coefficients of static and dynamic friction depend on the materials in contact.
Frictional force can be modified to improve sports performance.
Equations for the coefficients of static and dynamic friction are found in the SEHS data booklet.

Work results from the application of a force over a distance.
When work is done, energy is transformed from one form to others.
Power is a measure of the rate at which work is done. Measuring power output can therefore be a measure of work intensity.
Power output can be optimized through correct technique and the effective design of sports equipment.
Equations for work and power are found in the SEHS data booklet.

The path of a projectile through air is determined by different factors and forces.
A projectile's flight path is primarily determined by the initial velocity and angle of projection.
An object's desired flight path is affected by the height of release relative to the target.
An object's flight path is influenced by the weight of the object relative to the air resistance it encounters.

Environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, air pressure, wind, salinity of water and altitude affect the external forces acting on an object.

The forces of buoyancy, lift and drag acting on a body as it moves through a fluid (air or water) have a measurable effect on its path.
A projectile travelling through a fluid may be affected by Bernoulli's principle, the angle of attack and the Magnus effect.
Buoyancy is dependent on the density of the fluid and the volume of the fluid displaced.
Drag includes surface drag, form drag and wave drag, and can be altered by manipulating the environment and the moving object.
There can be sporting, ethical and regulatory implications of these effects.

A phases-of-movement approach is used to break down and describe movements.
The phases are preparatory, force production and critical instant, with a phase called “follow through” for discrete skills and “recovery” for continuous skills.
Movement analysis can identify areas for improvement applicable to health, safety and sporting performance. These include, but are not limited to, rehabilitation and accessibility.

The complex interaction of internal and external risk factors can predispose and make an individual susceptible to injury.
Internal factors—such as age, sex differences, pregnancy, the effects of training, congenital factors and previous injury—are considered individual variables.
External factors, such as the use of personal protective equipment, are considered environmental variables.

An acute trauma is caused by a sudden or excessive application of force, or by a force from an unexpected direction. A cumulative trauma is caused by the repeated application of force.
Trauma can lead to injuries of connective tissue, muscle, bone, skin and the brain.
Only functional concussion-like injury will be assessed for the brain.

Chronic or overuse injuries are often related to technique.
Correcting biomechanical maladaptations can decrease the risk of injury.

Methods of lowering the risk of injury attempt to minimize the abnormal application of forces and maximize the ability of the body to absorb any such application of force.
Protective equipment can lower the risk of injury, including the risk of concussion.
Sporting equipment can be selected or adjusted to suit users of different body sizes and shapes.
Flexibility training, proper warm-up and prehabilitation exercises can lower the risk of injury.
Learning and using correct technique and using developmentally appropriate rules are also effective.

The initial stages of injury treatment often involve mitigation of inflammation.
Serious injuries that involve complete tears or major fractures will sometimes require surgical repair.
In the healing process, therapeutic modalities (some managed by para-professionals) are provided to promote healing and a safe return to activity.
Compression, elevation, ice and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are examples of treatments for inflammation.
A balance is usually struck between the healing benefits of inflammation and the amelioration of pain.

Treatment of concussion varies based on the specifics of the injury. The pace of recovery is not always linear.
A return to normal daily activities, learning or sport is generally a staged process involving increasing levels of cognitive and physical demand.

Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving. Personality is typically understood to be an interaction between genetic traits and the environment.
Trait-based approaches present personality traits as relatively enduring, stable characteristics.
Traits are assessed using validated self-report questionnaires.
A common approach to assessing personality traits is through “the big five”.
• Openness to experience describes an individual’s willingness to try to new things, their ability to be vulnerable and their capacity for original thinking.
• Conscientiousness describes the tendency to control impulses, act in socially acceptable ways and act in ways that facilitate goal-directed behaviour.
• Extraversion (or its opposite, introversion) describes the extent to which individuals draw energy from interacting with other people (or find it draining).
• Agreeableness describes how well individuals relate to others and act in a way that will preserve relationships.
• Neuroticism, or its opposite, emotional stability, describes the extent to which individuals perceive situations as distressing, or maintain emotional balance.

Social learning theory is a situational approach to understanding behaviour.
Individuals learn behaviours, attitudes and behavioural consequences from other individuals in their social environment.
Behaviours are learned from observation and imitation.
The regard with which the role model (the person being observed) is held by the follower determines the extent of replication of behaviours.

Personality can change over a long period of time.
Personality can be modified over a significant period of time through experience, coaching and reflection.
There is no personality profile that predicts sport performance.
Observed behaviours are an interaction of personality traits and social learning.

Mental toughness is an aspect of personality that partly explains how individuals manage challenging and pressurized situations.
Mental toughness encompasses appraisal of challenges, commitment, confidence, perceived control and resilience.
Mental toughness contributes to successful sporting performance in high-pressure situations.
Mental toughness is a malleable personality trait. Studies suggest that mental toughness may be partly related to genetic traits, that in turn lead to personality traits. Studies also suggest that it can be developed further through training.
Mental toughness is difficult to observe, as it requires self-reported assessment.

The theory of the “self-fulfilling prophecy” in sporting success suggests that a sportsperson’s perceived self-confidence results in greater persistence and effort, leading to an increased probability of eventual success.
“Learned helplessness” is associated with an individual’s self-perceived lack of control over their future.

Mental toughness is positively associated with better health outcomes, including fewer depressive symptoms, fewer burnout symptoms and improved sleep quality.

Attribution theory illustrates how perceived locus of causality, stability and control can impact subsequent self-confidence.

Learning, including motor learning, is a relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience, whereas performance is a temporary occurrence, fluctuating over time.
Two competing models of motor learning are the information processing model and the ecological model. These models are respectively exemplified by schema theory and by ecological dynamics theory.
Motor learning theories include non-linear pedagogy and traditional linear pedagogy.
Non-linear pedagogy is exemplified by:
• ecological systems theory and dynamical systems theory—these theories include the concepts of performance variability, degrees of freedom, perception–action coupling and self-organization
• a constraints-led approach to skills acquisition: types of constraints and practical examples.
Linear pedagogy is exemplified by:
• open-loop and closed-loop theory
• schema theory
• generalized motor patterns and subordinate motor patterns
• phases of learning that include cognitive, associative and autonomous phases
• the practical implications of coaching learners in each phase.

The psychological refractory period is the time in which response to a second stimulus is significantly slowed because a first stimulus is still being processed.
The psychological refractory period is commonly exploited in sport. An example is the use of deception, e.g. in movement: taking advantage in a second move of the time it took an opponent to react to a first “false” move.

Transfer of learning refers to the influence of previous experience performing a skill on the learning of a new skill.
Types of transfer include skill to skill, practice to performance, abilities to skills, bilateral, stage to stage and principles to skills.

The proficient execution of specific skills requires the correct attentional focus.
Attention can be internal or external, and broad or narrow.
Concentration is said to be “lost” when attention is directed away from relevant tasks. This is known as distraction.
• External distractors can be visual or auditory.
• Internal distractors are cognitions that are either negative or unrelated to the goal-directed behaviour.
Controlled distraction is a method used by athletes to improve attentional control.
Attentional narrowing occurs when an individual is in a high-arousal situation.
Self-talk and goal setting are frequently used to control attentional focus.

Need achievement theory posits that personality and situational factors interact to produce resultant factors, which create emotional factors, which drive behavioural factors.
Coaches, sport scientists and health professionals can change situational factors to encourage individuals to approach achievement situations.

Goal orientation theory assumes that individuals strive to feel successful.
The perception of success can be referenced to self (task-oriented) or norms (ego-oriented).
High task orientation is associated with greater perseverance and effort.

High ego orientation can be problematic if task orientation is low.
High ego orientation is non-problematic when the individual believes that others perceive their ability as high.
However, high ego is likely to lead to anxiety, dropout or excuses if the individual believes others perceive their ability as low.
Individuals will seek to protect their ego and therefore become defensive if it is challenged.

Self-determination theory hypothesizes that humans strive to satisfy needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness.

Motivation can be placed along a continuum from amotivation to controlled motivation to autonomous motivation.
Amotivation is the absence of motivation. This occurs when there is no perceived contingency between effort and reward.
Controlled motivation is extrinsic, i.e. when engaging in an activity is a means to an end.
Autonomous motivation is intrinsic (self-determined) when engaging in an activity is an end in itself. This could be motivation to know, to accomplish or to experience stimulation.
Intrinsic motivation is positively associated with enjoyment, self-regulation and persistence, while extrinsic motivation is positively associated with anxiety.

Self-determination theory is a meta-theory comprising six mini-theories, each explaining a facet of individual motivation.
Cognitive evaluation theory explains how informational rewards support intrinsic motivation.
Rewards aimed at influencing motivation can undermine intrinsic motivation, creating the overjustification effect and making the motivation become more extrinsic.
Organismic integration theory explains the increasing internalization of controlled motivation through four subtypes of extrinsic motivation.
• Extrinsic regulation is when behaviours are regulated by a sense of little or no choice (“I must”).
• Introjected regulation is when behaviours are regulated by preventing feelings of guilt (“I should”).
• Identified regulation is when behaviours are regulated by a desire to do something but as a means to an end, i.e. contingent on a reward (“I want to”).
• Integrated regulation is when the motivation has been largely internalized by aligning with personal goals, values or beliefs, but is still contingent on a reward.
Causal orientations theory identifies three types of causal orientations.
• Autonomy orientation—the individual acts out of interest in and valuing what is occurring.
• Control orientation—the focus is on rewards, gains and approval.
• Amotivation—this is characterized by anxiety concerning competence.
Basic psychological needs theory suggests that psychological well-being and optimal functioning are predicated on autonomy, competence and relatedness.
• Well-being and performance are predicted by the extent to which these basic psychological needs are met or thwarted.
Goal contents theory distinguishes between extrinsic and intrinsic goals. Intrinsic goals are associated with greater well-being.
Relationships motivation theory argues that some amount of positive interpersonal interactions are not only desirable but essential for well-being.

Motivational climate describes the psychological environment that the coach creates by designing sessions that provide instructions and feedback, which will help to motivate the athletes in training or competition.
There are two contrasting recognized motivational climates: mastery and ego.
• A mastery climate emphasizes individual or team development, supporting and recognizing effort, cooperation and improvement.
• An ego climate emphasizes winning at all costs, competition and comparison with others.
Mastery climates are most effective for enjoyment, teamwork and maximizing performance over time. Ego climates are anxiety-inducing and are typically only effective in the short term.
Coaches and psychologists often use the TARGET (task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation and time) approach to foster a mastery motivational climate.

Arousal refers to the level of physical and psychological activation. This impacts on sport performance in the way that individuals attempt to manage their levels of intensity.
Traditional unidimensional theories of psychological arousal are drive theory and inverted U theory.
According to inverted U theory, athletes have their own individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF). This is the zone where their psychological arousal is personally optimal for their sporting performance.

When anxiety is low, individuals experience positive emotions, such as excitement, desire and elation. High levels of anxiety induce negative emotions such as fear, worry and despondency.
Multidimensional approaches to anxiety recognize that activation level alone is insufficient to explain anxiety’s effects on performance.
Catastrophe theory suggests that when both cognitive and somatic anxiety are high, performance declines rapidly or is ended prematurely.
Anxiety can be measured via subjective measures, e.g. self-reporting, or objective measures, e.g. variation in heart rate and blood pressure and galvanic skin response.

A stressor causes psychological strain. This can be positive, such as looking forward to an opportunity, or negative, such as fearing an outcome.
Individuals seek to manage stressors through coping strategies. These are categorized as:
• problem focused—strategies that seek to alter the stressor and include problem solving, removing the source of stress or information seeking
• emotion focused—strategies that do not alter the stressor but regulate the negative emotional response to it; they include relaxation, seeking emotional social support and self-talk
• avoidance focused—strategies that attempt to prevent the negative impact of a stressor by physically or psychologically distancing oneself from it; they include ignoring, procrastinating and quitting.
Self-talk is a simple coping technique that can be problem focused or emotion focused.
• Unintentional self-talk can be negative or positive.
• Practical mechanisms for self-talk include: recalling how positive experiences in the past felt, using an acronym of helpful phrases and describing a physical movement in a simple word.
Relaxation skills can be developed for greater control of heart rate.

Stressors can be considered as either controllable or uncontrollable.
Problem-focused coping is more effective for controllable stressors.
Emotion-focused coping is more effective when the stressor is uncontrollable.

Many coping strategies have been shown to be effective for athletes, although the effectiveness of each is specific to the individual and the situation.
Seeking support has been shown to be the most effective type of coping strategy for athletes.
Seeking support can be a problem-focused or emotion-focused coping strategy, depending on whom support is sought from.
Logical analysis, relaxation, mental imagery, thought control and effort expenditure are common effective coping strategies used by athletes.
Distraction can be a useful short-term emotion-focused coping strategy, but it is not effective for reaching goals.
Coping strategies involving disengagement, such as mental or physical withdrawal, venting unpleasant emotions and self-blame are maladaptive strategies.

Goal setting directs attention to a specific task. It is regularly used to enhance motivation in sport, exercise and health.
Outcome goals are norm-referenced and use an objective result as the target.
Learning-focused goals include performance goals and process goals.
Performance goals are self-referenced and specify a measurable target, representing an improvement in performance.
Process goals are self-referenced and focus on the technique or strategy required to execute a skill successfully.
The effectiveness of each type of goal depends on the individual and their achievement motivation.

The goal-setting paradox explains that elite athletes often feel less satisfied when a higher goal is achieved than an easier goal. This is thought to be the result of feelings of deflation after success.
Goal adjustment is considered more important than goal setting.
Research suggests that some individuals perform best with “do-your-best” goals or “open” goals.

Imagery is an experience that mimics real experience. It involves using a combination of different sensory modalities in the absence of actual perception.
The purpose of imagery can be cognitive or motivational, specific or general.
The PETTLEP model—physical, environment, task, timing, learning, emotion, perspective—is used in sport to create the most functionally equivalent image possible.
Paivio’s imagery framework can be used to determine the appropriate function of imagery.