IB Psychology (2027) Syllabus

Bias
A bias is a limitation in objective thinking; it is a tendency to perceive information through a cognitive filter of experience and preference. Psychologists should be aware of biases that occur during the research process—that is, researcher biases, participant biases, sampling bias, confirmation bias and publication bias. It is important not to just recognize the bias, but to understand how it may affect the way research is conducted and the results analysed and interpreted. Creating controls for bias is an important part of the research process. Psychological research attempts to be objective, while at the same time recognizing that much of the data that is collected is subjective and that bias can be implicit or explicit.
Biases such as gender and cultural biases are present in clinical psychology and can affect diagnosis, prevalence statistics and treatment. Biases may also be toward a certain perspective in psychology and result in reductionism.
Biases also affect how choices are made on a daily basis. Cognitive biases may be applied because there is not enough time, information or motivation to make a decision. Anchoring, representativeness and availability biases can affect thinking and decision-making.

Causality
Psychologists investigate the relationship between variables with the goal of determining cause-and-effect relationships. However, human behaviour is complex, so often causality is not the direct effect of one variable on another, but often the interaction of several variables. Simple relationships may be the result of direct causal relationships.

Change
A key focus of psychological research is how to apply theory and psychological findings with the goal of changing individual behaviours. One of the great debates of psychology is the extent to which we have free will over our behaviour versus whether behaviours are determined. Change is a constant in the human experience and can be gradual (as in human development) or sudden (as in mood changes). It can also be deliberate, as with intrinsic motivation to change one's behaviour through education or health treatments. Unplanned change can be due to unexpected biological changes in the body or mind while planned change can involve individual and group adaptation to evolving circumstances, such as environmental and technological influences.
Researchers look at theories of how to promote change—whether it be encouraging stress management, healthy eating or stopping unhealthy behaviour. However, psychologists also recognize that there is resistance to change. Psychologists evaluate the effectiveness of treatments and health promotion strategies on the individual, local and global levels.

Measurement
A fundamental challenge for psychologists is that human behaviour is difficult to observe and objectively measure. Measurement varies according to the context in which it is applied and the theory underlying its use. Psychologists must select appropriate methods for studying and collecting data relevant to the behaviour studied. An important aspect of measurement is the operationalization of variables in order to allow for reliable measurement and a valid representation of the behaviour being studied. Triangulation of methods allows for researchers to establish the credibility of their findings.
There are strengths and limitations to each type of evidence collected. Measurements may be direct or indirect. Data may be quantitative or qualitative—or a mix of both.
Psychologists use various techniques to measure variables affecting behaviour, including brain imaging techniques, twin studies, virtual reality simulations and questionnaires. In some cases measurement involves collection and statistical analysis of large amounts of quantitative data. In others, measurement is indirect—for example, determining the role of a neurotransmitter in a behaviour by measuring brain activity using brain imagining technology such as an MRI scanner.

Perspective
Psychology is the rigorous and systematic study of behaviour. A challenge unique to this academic discipline is the complexity of studying the behaviour of humans with highly developed frontal lobes, self-awareness, cognitive abilities, advanced social structures and cultures. As a result, within psychology there are a number of different approaches that have evolved to provide a multi-perspective understanding of human beings. The content of DP psychology comprises three approaches which examine how biological, cognitive and sociocultural factors influence human behaviour. No single perspective explains behaviour sufficiently on its own; each provides a means by which to interpret and examine behaviour.
Each perspective or approach is based on a series of assumptions about behaviour and beliefs about research. For example, sociocultural approach takes a more holistic approach, using both etic and emic methodology.

Responsibility
Psychologists rely on humans as participants in their research; the relationship between researchers and participants is based on the premise of treating each other with respect. As researchers, therapists or government advisers, for example, psychologists can have positions of power and should act with social responsibility. In the use of animal participants, researchers should attempt to reduce the number of animals used, refine the conditions of the research in order to minimize harm and always attempt to replace animals with alternatives.
Ethical principles guide psychologists, and those studying psychology, to make reasoned and responsible decisions to ensure that benefits are maximized and costs are minimized. Ethical standards can also affect the results of research. Informed consent can introduce participant variables, the right to withdraw can lead to sampling biases, and anonymity can increase the validity of self-reported data.
It is important to note that the core ethical considerations have been developed over time, and may continue to adapt and change depending on the context. Today it is recognized that the way research is applied is also the responsibility of psychologists. This includes protecting marginalized groups from stigma, making sure that the public understands the level of uncertainty in a study's findings and advocating for change in governmental policies in line with research findings.

The use of animal research in the study of human behaviour and the ethical considerations in the use of animals in research.

The strengths and limitations of a reductionist approach to the study of behaviour.

The use of using one or more brain imaging techniques in investigating human behaviour.

The role of localization of function in explaining human behaviour and cognition.

Neuroplasticity and its role in human behaviour.

The role of one or more chemical messengers in human behaviour.

The process of neurotransmission and its influence on human behaviour.

The interaction of environmental factors and genetics in human behaviour.

The extent to which human behaviour may be inherited.

The role of anchoring bias in decision-making.

The role of confirmation bias in decision-making.

The role of the dual processing theory in understanding decision-making.

The process of classical conditioning and its role in behaviour.

The process of operant conditioning and its role in behaviour.

The role of cognitive load theory in understanding human cognition.

The role of one or more cognitive models in understanding a cognitive process or behaviour.

The role of schema theory in understanding a cognitive process.

The role of cognitive dissonance in understanding human behaviour.

The role of one or more compliance techniques in changing human behaviour.

The process of conformity and its role in understanding human behaviour.

The role of one or more cultural dimensions in understanding cross-cultural similarities and differences in behaviour.

The use of the emic approach in researching human behaviour.

The use of the etic approach to researching human behaviour.

The role of enculturation in one or more human behaviour.

The application of one or more acculturation models to explain the experience of immigrants, refugees or other people taking an extended stay in another culture.

The application of social identity theory to explain and change behaviour.

The application of social learning theory to explain and change behaviour.

• Factors that should be considered when generalizing findings to another population or context.
• The role of reflexivity and the process of checking for unconscious bias.
• Factors that should be considered when transferring findings of a study to another population or context and the steps to ensuring credibility in research.
• Strategies for ensuring the credibility of research.

• Differentiate between the different types of research methods.
• The appropriate selection of research methodology to investigate a psychological question.
• The advantages and disadvantages of different research methods.
• The potential effects of ethical considerations on psychological research.
• The role of external variables in drawing conclusions about causality.

• The advantages and disadvantages of different sampling techniques.

• Understand that data is represented and analysed in different forms based on the design of the study and the nature of the data.
• Analyse and interpret different types of data tables, graphs and results.
• Analyse and interpret descriptive and inferential statistics.
• Understand the stages of thematic analysis to uncover patterns in textual data that are then grouped into themes that are relevant to the aim of research engaging in thematic analysis.
• Descriptive statistics: Analyse and interpret results of typical measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation, semi-interquartile range).
• Inferential statistics: Analyse and interpret results of typical tests of difference between two groups or conditions (such as chi-square test, related and unrelated t-test, Mann-Whitney test, Wilcoxon test) and tests of relationship between two variables (such as correlation coefficients). Understand the notions of effect size and statistical significance.

One or more biological explanations of one mental health disorder.

The value of one or more cognitive models in understanding a mental health disorder.

The role of one or more environmental factors in understanding/explaining mental health disorders.

One or more factors that may explain the difference in prevalence rates for mental health disorders between cultures and/or populations.
Examples of cultural differences in approaches to mental health.

One or more factors that may explain changes in the prevalence of one or more health problems in a population.
One or more factors that may explain differences in the prevalence of one or more health problems between populations.

The role of social learning theory in understanding one or more health problems.

The role of stress in one or more health problems.

The explanation and effectiveness of one or more biological treatments of one or more mental health disorders.

The explanation and effectiveness of one or more prevention and/or treatment strategies for one or more health problems.

The explanation and effectiveness of one or more psychological treatments of one or more mental health disorders.

The role of brain maturation in human development.
The extent to which critical periods explain human development.
The role of neuroplasticity in human development.

The influence of one or more sociocultural factors in human development.

The explanation and effectiveness of one or more stage theories and one or more continuous models in understanding human development.

The role theory of mind has in understanding human development and cognition.

The role of attachment in the development of self.

The role of enculturation of social norms in the development of self.

The role of peer influence in the development of self.

The role of childhood experiences in the development of self.

Different acculturation strategies and their effect on human behaviour.

The role of one or more cultural dimensions in understanding group behaviour(s).

The application of one or more compliance techniques to change group behaviour(s).

The role of conformity in understanding group behaviour(s).

The application of social identity theory to explain and change group behaviour(s).

The application of social learning theory to explain and change group behaviour(s).

The role of one or more chemical messengers in interpersonal relationships.

One or more cognitive explanations for interpersonal relationships.

The role of communication in interpersonal relationships.

One or more strategies for improving interpersonal relationships.

The role of one or more cognitive biases in decision-making.

The value of the dual processing theory for understanding thinking and decision-making.

The role of schema in behaviour and/or cognition.

Examples of classical and operant conditioning as a way of learning.
Application of operant conditioning to change behaviour.

The role of social learning theory in learning.
Application of social learning theory to explain and change behaviour.

The role of one or more biological factors in one or more cognitive processes.

The role of one or more cultural factors in one cognitive process.

The potential influence of one or more environmental factors on one cognitive process.

The value of one or more cognitive models in understanding one or more cognitive processes.

One or more strategies to improve one or more cognitive processes.

All students must engage in a class practical for each context. These can be teacher and/or student led. Furthermore, students can be encouraged to design and operate additional student-led class practicals. While these extra exercises are not compulsory they must always be conducted with explicit permission from the teacher, given on a class practical research form (provided in the teacher support materials) and according to ethical guidelines.

All class practicals must follow ethical guidelines.

All four practicals must be conducted, one of each type, but their allocation into contexts may be changed.

Interview (structured, semi-structured or focus group)
Minimum sample size: One participant in an individual interview or three to eight participants in one focus group

Observation (naturalistic or controlled, overt or covert, participant or non-participant)
Minimum sample size: One participant

Survey/questionnaire (used interchangeably)
Minimum sample size: 10 participants

Experiment (true or quasi-)
Minimum sample size: Five participants (repeated measures) or ten participants (independent measures)

Class practicals should always be conducted under the supervision of a teacher and everyone involved must adhere to ethical guidelines. If a non-compulsory class practical is student led, classmates must be free to choose whether they wish to participate, and can withdraw at any time. For the class practicals to be considered ethical, they must not harm anyone. Any class practical that creates anxiety, stress, pain or discomfort for participants is not permitted. In addition, teachers and students must exercise the greatest sensitivity to local, national and international cultures.
Partial deception may be allowed for some class practicals where full knowledge of the study would fundamentally affect the outcome. Such class practicals are permissible provided they do no harm and participants are fully debriefed at the end. Participants retain their right to withdraw their data at this point. Conformity or obedience studies are not permitted under any circumstances.

Caution should be exercised around sensitive issues regardless of the structure of the interview study. It would therefore be inappropriate for students to interview other students on topics such as, for example, mental health concerns or diagnosis, experiences of bullying or self-harm. This is not an exhaustive list and teachers are advised to fully consider the needs of their students and be careful in their approach. More appropriate topics for students to interview each other include subjects such as stress reduction techniques, healthy lifestyle habits or media consumption.

Ethical guidelines demand that explicit informed consent must be obtained from subjects of a class practical through the use of a consent form. Implied consent is not acceptable. All participants must be informed of the aims and objectives of the class practical. All participants must be informed before commencing the class practical study that they have the right to withdraw at any time. Pressure must not be placed on any individual participant to continue with the investigation. A consent form template will be provided as part of the teacher support materials.
Parental consent is not required for participants aged 16 and older. Class practical studies involving children under 16 require written consent of parent(s) or guardian(s). Students must ensure that parents are fully informed about the implications for children who take part in such research. It is permitted to study children under the age of 12, as long as appropriate ethical considerations are addressed, especially regarding parental informed consent. Where a class practical study is conducted with children in a school, the written consent of the teachers concerned must also be obtained.
Students must not conduct research with any participant who is not in a fit state of mind and cannot respond freely and independently. In addition, animals must not be used for class practicals.
When conducting a naturalistic observation, participants will not be able to give informed consent, and its debriefing would be difficult and ineffectual. Asking participants for their consent will alert them to being studied and may therefore influence their behaviour. Therefore, it is up to the teacher to decide which situations are appropriate to observe and what would be unethical. In general, it is acceptable to conduct naturalistic observations in areas where participants would expect to be observed by strangers or "in public". Examples include in a shopping centre, on public transport, on the street.
While surveys/questionnaires raise fewer ethical issues than many other research methods, care should still be taken to ensure students understand that consent must still be gained before issuing a survey/questionnaire.

All data collected must be stored in a confidential and responsible manner and not disclosed to any other person. Anonymity for each participant must be guaranteed even after the class practical has finished.
Data must not be used for purposes other than that agreed to by the participants. Any data collected or stored online must be deleted once the research is complete. Such data must not be used for any purpose other than the conduct of the class practical study.

Health and well-being
• The role of culture in health and well-being.
• The role of culture in diagnosing and treating mental health issues.
• Cross-cultural comparisons of the prevalence of mental health issues.

Human development
• The role of cultural dimensions in understanding the social and cognitive development of children.
• The extent Western models of development can be applied to explain child development in Indigenous cultures—or vice versa.
• The role of culture in developing the self.

Human relationships
• Different strategies for developing and maintaining cross-cultural relationships.
• The role of culture and strategies for cross-cultural communication.

Learning and cognition
• The role of culture on learning and cognition.
• The role of bilingualism on other cognitive processes.
• The extent to which learning and cognition across cultures are similar and different.

Health and well-being
• The different motivational theories underpinning the prevention or treatment of a health problem.
• The role of motivation in changing behaviour.

Human development
• The different motivational theories important in human development.
• The role of extrinsic motivators in the social development of a child.

Human relationships
• The role of motivation to influence group behaviours.
• The motivational strategies to change individual behaviours.
• The role of motivators in leading to greater employee satisfaction and performance.

Learning and cognition
• The role of motivation in enhancing one cognitive process.
• The strategies to motivate students to becoming independent learners.
• The extent motivation can be assessed.

Health and well-being
The role of technology in assisting in the prevention or treatment of health problems.
The role of technology on mental health problems.
The effectiveness of tele-therapy in the treatment of disorders.

Human development
The role of technology on the development of self.
The role of artificial intelligence to test models of human development.
The effect of technology on attachment.

Human relationships
The impact of technology on interpersonal relationships.
The role of social media contributing to group behaviour.
The use of technology to assist with acculturation into a new society.

Learning and cognition
The role of technology in learning.
The effect of technology on cognition.

The related terms in table 3.4 should be familiar to all HL students as they are instrumental in enabling students to apply relevant arguments about psychological research in paper 3 and their internal assessment. Opportunities should be found to teach this content, either via HL class practicals or as part of studying the content and extensions.

Related terms in table 3.4 may be used in examination materials in paper 3. More information on teaching psychology research methods can be found in the Psychology section of the DP resources on the Programme Resource Centre.