Motivate yourself with a small reward after finishing a study block – a walk, a snack or a quick chat
Practice structuring essays with clear introductions, body paragraphs and conclusions
Practice structuring essays with clear introductions, body paragraphs and conclusions
Motivate yourself with a small reward after finishing a study block – a walk, a snack or a quick chat
4 subtopics
Historical events always have multiple, interrelated, short- and long-term causes and consequences.
The causes and consequences of historical events result from the interplay of two types of factors—historical actors, who are the people (individuals or groups) who take action, and the conditions within which these actors operate.
Historical events and their consequences were never inevitable. These causes and consequences could be probable, improbable, intentional or accidental.
Societies can undergo historical continuity and change at the same time, as these are interwoven processes.
Historical continuity and change are processes that can be both rapid and transformative over the short term and follow slower patterns and trends over the long term.
The ways people (both individuals and societies) have experienced historical continuity and change can be positive, negative or a combination of both.
There are always diverse historical perspectives on events, which are held both by those who participated in and observed events as they took place, and those looking back on events from a later date.
Historical perspectives are not all equally valid, and historians must determine this validity through an examination of the claims that are being made.
Historical perspectives can corroborate and support each other as well as be contradictory and lead to ambiguities that historians must try to resolve.
Historical significance is constructed through judgements about which people and events should be included in (and/or excluded from) historical narratives.
The judgements of significance that historians make can reflect the evidence that the historian has at their disposal as well as their values and those of the society of which they are a part.
People and events can be historically significant because of their power, importance and impact, as well as because of what they reveal about the past, even if they lack power and importance and/or are marginalized.
2 subtopics
What factors prompted innovation?
• Population pressures and lack of arable land
• Technological advances in shipbuilding
• Roles of Erik Thorvaldsson (i.e. Erik the Red) (circa 950–1003) and Leif Erikson (circa 970s–1018)
How did climate conditions shape innovation?
• Medieval Warm Period
• Emergence of new sea routes
• Environmental conditions in Greenland and Vinland
What innovations took place?
• Establishment of new settlements in Greenland and Vinland, including L'Anse aux Meadows
• Food production
• Relations with the Skrælingjar
What factors prompted innovation?
• Triple Alliance and the establishment of the Aztec Empire
• Imperial reforms, including the Flower Wars
• Role of Moctezuma I (circa 1440–1469)
How did climate conditions shape innovation?
• Environmental conditions in the Valley of Mexico
• Importance of water resources
• Drought, including the famine of One Rabbit
What innovations took place?
• Urban planning, including in Tenochtitlán
• Food production, including chinampas
• Aztec expansion and annexation of Totonacapan
2 subtopics
What prompted the emergence of the independence movement?
• French colonial rule
• Slave resistance, maroonage and Vodou
• Influence of the French Revolution
How was independence achieved?
• War for Freedom in Saint Domingue (1791) and the abolition of slavery (1793)
• Independence struggle (1794–1804)
• Roles of Toussaint L'Ouverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines
How, and with what challenges, was a new identity formed?
• Constitution (1801) and Declaration of Independence (1804)
• Continuing social inequalities established during French colonial rule
• Independence debt (1825)
What prompted the emergence of the independence movement?
• British colonial rule
• Resistance of the Kenya African Union
• Influence of the Second World War
How was independence achieved?
• Mau Mau Uprising (1952–1960)
• Lancaster House Conferences, self-government and multi-party politics (1960–1963)
• Role of Jomo Kenyatta
How, and with what challenges, was a new identity formed?
• Independence Constitution (1963) and transition towards a one-party political system
• Education and promotion of cultural diversity
• Land reforms
2 subtopics
What caused the transition to take place?
• Decline of the Tokugawa Shogunate
• Stagnation and demands for rapid modernization
• Influence of the United States (USA) and European countries
How was the transition achieved?
• Roles of the Meiji oligarchy and Emperor Mutsuhito
• Land reform, industrialization and trade
• Constitution of 1889
What challenges did society face after the transition?
• Peasant unrest
• Satsuma Rebellion
• Foreign relations and imperialism
What caused the transition to take place?
• Role of the Communist Party
• Impact of stagnation and failed economic reform
• Challenges to communism in Eastern Europe
How was the transition achieved?
• Roles of Mikhail Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin
• Constitution of 1993
• Privatization, market liberalization and tax reforms
What challenges did society face after the transition?
• Soviet coup attempt (1991) and the constitutional crisis (September–October 1993)
• Labour strikes, protests and organized crime
• First Chechen War (1994–1996)
2 subtopics
What were the conditions that led to mass displacement?
• Combat operations and Allied victory
• Persecution and fear of reprisals
• Economic factors
What was the national and international response to displacement?
• Displaced persons camps, migration, emigration and repatriation
• Role of Allied governments and non-governmental organizations, including the International Red Cross
• Role of United Nations (UN), including the UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) and International Refugee Organization (IRO)
How was displacement experienced by different groups?
• Refugees and stateless persons
• Concentration camp survivors, including Jews, Roma and prisoners of war
• Former forces under German command
What were the conditions that led to mass displacement?
• Combat operations and Communist victory
• Persecution and fear of reprisals
• Economic factors
What was the national and international response to displacement?
• Displaced persons camps, migration, emigration and repatriation
• Role of the USA and the Vietnamese government
• Role of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), including the Orderly Departure Program (1979)
How was displacement experienced by different groups?
• Vietnamese, including the Hoa (ethnic Chinese) and Montagnard
• Cambodians fleeing the Khmer Rouge, including the Chams
• Laotians and highland people of Laos, including the Hmong people
2 subtopics
What led to the emergence of protest movements?
• Reactions to domesticity, including participation of women in the workforce
• Impact of changing access to contraception
• Influence of early feminist literature
How did the protest movement challenge authority?
• Protest and activism
• Role of groups including the National Organization for Women (NOW), the National Women's Political Caucus and organizations affiliated to the Women's Liberation Movement
• Role of mass media
What changes did the protest movement achieve, and with what limitations?
• Political and legal changes, including Title IX (1972) and Roe v. Wade (1973)
• Economic changes, including equal pay and employment rights
• Experiences of marginalized women, including African American and working-class women
What led to the emergence of protest movements?
• Repression and censorship by the Ben Ali regime
• Failed economic reform and unemployment
• Influence and spread of revolutionary ideas
How did the protest movement challenge authority?
• December Revolution
• Ennahda Party and Nidaa Tounes
• Role of social media
What changes did the protest movement achieve, and with what limitations?
• Political and legal changes, including the ousting of Ben Ali and the 2014 Constitution
• Social changes, including youth radicalization and terrorism
• Role and status of women
4 subtopics
Why did conflict emerge?
• Economic factors
• Political factors
• Social factors
• Environmental factors
What determined the outcome of the conflict?
• Role of leadership
• Strategies and tactics
• Mobilization of resources
• Role of technology
How did the conflict affect people’s lives?
• Economic impact
• Social impact
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
How was peace established?
• Military outcome
• Political decision-making
• Social factors
• Post-conflict peace-building
4 subtopics
Why did new innovations emerge?
• Social factors
• Economic factors
• Political factors
• Environmental factors
How did the innovations transform societies?
• Economic change
• Political change
• Environmental change
• Cultural change
How were the innovations resisted?
• Resistance from established authorities
• Forms of popular resistance
• Resilience of traditional ideas
• Competing innovations
How did the innovations affect peoples’ lives?
• Experiences of innovators
• Experiences of social elites
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
4 subtopics
Why did popular movements emerge?
• Political factors
• Economic factors
• Role of ideas
• Social factors
How did popular movements create change?
• Political participation
• Non-violent methods
• Cultural influence
• Violent methods
How were popular movements challenged?
• Political opposition
• Divisions within the movement
• Violent opposition
• Resilience of traditional ideas
What was the impact of popular movements?
• Political change
• Social change
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
6 subtopics
Rise of the Abbasid Caliphate
• Declining power of the Umayyads
• Abbasid military power and leaders
• Religious and social factors
• Changing nature of the Islamic world and end of Arab dominance
Impact of Abbasid rule
• Political developments, including structure of government
• Economic, social and cultural development
• Intellectual development, including the Golden Age of Islam
• Role of Harun al-Rashid and al-Ma’mun
Reasons for, and regional impact of, the collapse of Abbasid rule
• Political factors
• Economic factors
• Military factors, including the Seljuks, Byzantines and Mongols
• Religious factors, including the Fatimids, Shi’ites and Christians
Reasons for emergence of the Crusades
• Religious factors
• Political factors
• Economic factors
• Territorial factors
Reasons for the outcome of the Crusades
• Economic and political factors
• Military factors
• Role of European leaders, including Godfrey de Bouillon and Richard I of England
• Role of Muslim leaders, including Imad ad-Din Zengi and Nur ad-Din, Salah ad-Din and Baybars
Impact of the Crusades in the Middle East
• Political impact
• Economic impact
• Social impact
• Cultural impact
6 subtopics
Emergence and consolidation of the state
• Political factors
• Military campaigns and conquests
• Social factors
• Economic factors
Reasons for the growth of production and trade
• Main commodities
• Trade routes
• Productive lands, including agriculture and mineral resources
• Mobilization of labour force
Maintenance of authority
• Role of leaders
• Centralization of power
• Role of dynasties and succession
• Diplomatic relations
Impact of the state
• Religious impact
• Cultural impact
• Social impact
• Experiences of women
Reasons for decline and collapse
• Opposition, resistance and civil wars
• Foreign challenges
• Economic factors
• Trade in enslaved peoples
Impact of decline and collapse
• Impact on successor states
• Challenges for marginalized groups
• Changing traditional practices
• Commercial and social networks
6 subtopics
Reasons for the expansion of the Atlantic slave trade
• Growth of maritime commerce
• Development of plantation agriculture
• European demand and responses from African states
• Internal rivalries and warfare
Reasons for the expansion of slavery in East Africa from the late 18th century
• Existing trade in enslaved peoples between the Middle East and the Swahili Coast
• Expansion of Sultanate of Oman into East Africa
• Rise of Zanzibar Sultanate and clove plantations
• Escape from British antislavery control in the Atlantic Ocean
Impact of slavery in Africa
• Social impact
• Economic impact
• Demographic changes
• Expanding power of African states involved in the slave trade
Resistance to slavery by enslaved peoples
• Day-to-day resistance
• Nature and impact of rebellions
• Escape, including the establishment of communities of escaped enslaved peoples
• Legal and political resistance in Africa
Economic reasons for the decline of the slave trade
• Industrialization and new technology
• Rise of legitimate commerce in West Africa
• Need for labour force in African plantations
• Reduced productivity of slave labour
Reasons for the abolition of the slave trade
• Ideological factors
• Role of the abolitionist movement
• Political and legal factors, including 1807 and 1824 Slave Trade Acts
• The expansion of European colonialism
6 subtopics
Decline of Ottoman power (from circa 1790)
• Loss of influence in North Africa
• Impact of Napoleonic Wars
• Rise of Muhammad Ali
• Impact of Greek War of Independence (1821)
Emergence of the “Eastern Question” and increasing European influence
• Economic, religious and strategic reasons
• Impact of Crimean War
• Impact of Balkan unrest
• Russo–Turkish War (1877) and Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin
Reasons for, and impact of, Tanzimat reforms (1839–1876)
• Political factors
• Religious factors
• Social factors
• Role of individuals, including Abdul Aziz
Emergence and impact of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP)
• Emergence of ideological, political and military factors to 1908
• Political reform in the Second Constitutional Era (1908–1913)
• The 1913 coup d’état and growing nationalism and authoritarianism
• The Ottoman approach to minorities (to 1918)
Impact of conflict on the Ottoman Empire
• Italo–Turkish War (1911–1912) and Balkan Wars (1912–1913)
• First World War, including Arab Revolt (1916–1918)
• Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923)
• Treaty of Lausanne (1923), role of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and establishment of the Republic of Türkiye
Impact of the rule of Atatürk (1923–1938)
• Political reform
• Social and cultural reform, including secularization
• Economic reform
• Extent and success of opposition
6 subtopics
Growth of European activity in Africa (from circa 1840)
• Decline of the Ottoman Empire
• Traders and expansion of commercial activities
• Explorers and missionaries
• Technological innovations
Reasons for emergence of “New Imperialism” in Africa
• Economic factors, including demand for raw materials and new markets
• Strategic factors, including British actions in Egypt and South Africa, and the Suez Canal
• Political factors, including national rivalries
• Social factors, including the expansion of Christianity and “civilizing mission”
Vulnerability of African societies to European imperialism
• Military weakness
• Political weakness
• Collaboration, including treaties between Europeans and African rulers
• Disunity, including internal conflicts
Causes and impact of the partition of Africa
• Berlin Conference (1884–1885)
• Role of Bismarck
• “Scramble” for annexation by Belgium, France, Germany, United Kingdom (UK), Italy, Portugal and Spain
• Political and military disputes between European powers
Reasons for resistance and collaboration
• Political leadership
• Military strength
• Social factors
• Impact of colonial rule
Successes and failures of African responses
• Military responses
• Escape and migration
• Political negotiations and treaties
• Collaboration
6 subtopics
Impact of the Mineral Revolution (from 1867)
• Social and economic effects of mining
• Migration of white miners on the Transvaal and growth of Boer nationalism
• Impact of migration of Africans to mines and cities
• Exploitation of African labour and the beginnings of segregation
Outbreak and impact of the South African War (1899–1902)
• Economic and political causes of the conflict
• Military impact, including guerrillas and concentration camps
• Political and economic impact
• Impact on society and Boer identity
Emergence and development of apartheid
• Segregation policies pre-1948
• National Party victory in 1948
• Petty and Grand Apartheid policies
• Subjugation and violence
Growth and development of resistance to apartheid
• African National Congress (ANC) and Nelson Mandela
• Changing role of non-violence, civil disobedience, violent resistance and armed struggle
• Influence of Steve Biko and Black Consciousness
• Impact of Sharpeville, Soweto and township violence
Impact of international opposition and changing attitudes
• Global opposition, including sporting and cultural boycotts
• Economic sanctions, boycotts and divestments
• End of the Cold War
• Role of other African states
Successes and failures in the end of apartheid
• Contributions of Mandela and Frederik Willem de Klerk
• Importance of the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) and 1994 elections
• Truth and Reconciliation Commission
• Ongoing political and economic challenges
6 subtopics
Impact of colonialism in the Congo Free State (1885–1908) and Belgian Congo (1908–1960)
• Political impact
• Economic impact
• Experiences of Indigenous peoples
• Emergence and growth of nationalism
Impact of German and Belgian colonialism in Rwanda (1885–1962)
• Economic impact
• Institutionalization of identity under Kigeli IV Rwabugiri
• Impact of social engineering and identity cards under Belgian rule
• Experiences of Indigenous peoples
Reasons for the post-independence civil war in Rwanda
• Purges of the Tutsi during the early independence period
• Economic disparities and environmental crisis
• The rise of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and the outbreak of civil war
• Arusha Accords and assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana
Emergence and impact of Mobutu on Zaire
• Congo Crisis (1960–1965)
• Maintenance of power, including elimination of opposition and the cult of personality
• Economic policies, including plundering of the state
• First Congo War (1996–1997)
Reasons for, and impact of, the Rwandan genocide (1994)
• Interahamwe and media propaganda
• Mass killings and arrival of the RPF
• Response of the international community
• International Criminal Court for Rwanda and other reconciliation initiatives
Reasons for, and impact of, the Second Congo War (1998–2003)
• Armed intervention by neighbouring states and assassination of Laurent Kabila
• Control of minerals, including role of foreign governments and companies
• M23 and other militia groups
• Atrocities of war, including crimes against women and children
6 subtopics
Methods used to establish and maintain colonial political authority
• Assimilation
• Direct rule
• Indirect rule
• Settler colonies
Methods used to maintain power
• African involvement in colonial administration
• Legal methods
• Role of internal security
• Coercion and violence
Impact of colonial economic policies
• Changes to land use and agriculture
• Voluntary and forced African involvement in the economy
• Development of technology and infrastructure
• Changes in regional and global trade
Social and cultural continuity and change under colonialism
• African responses to religious changes, including mission churches and Africanist churches
• Changes to traditional social structures, including urbanization and migration
• Indigenous and national identity
• Attitudes between colonizers and colonized
Impact of colonial rule on different social groups
• Experiences of colonists
• Experiences of Indigenous elites
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of different ethnic groups
Effectiveness of Indigenous resistance to colonial rule
• Political and legal actions
• Cultural resistance
• Day-to-day resistance
• Armed rebellion
6 subtopics
Origins of the Arab–Israeli conflict
• Zionism and the Balfour Declaration
• Sykes–Picot and the creation of the Palestine mandate
• Growth of Arab nationalism
• Increased Jewish immigration
Reasons for Arab–Jewish tensions (to 1945)
• British immigration policy
• Social, political and economic factors
• Arab Revolt (1936–1939)
• Jewish and Arab responses to increased tensions
Reasons for the First Arab–Israeli War (1948)
• Impact of the Second World War and Jewish immigration
• Role of the UK and UN
• Creation of the state of Israel
• Role of Jewish and Arab groups and individuals, including David Ben-Gurion and the Arab League
Continuation and escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict
• Military conflicts, including Suez Crisis, 1967 War and 1973 War
• Creation of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and search for support for Palestine
• Israeli militancy, territorial changes, anti-PLO policies and settlements
• Palestinian actions, including the First and Second Intifada, and rise of Hamas
Impact of the Arab–Israeli conflict
• Political and economic impact
• Social impact, including migration
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
Attempts to reach a peaceful settlement
• Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty (1979)
• Oslo Peace Process
• Camp David (2000)
• Arab Peace Initiative
6 subtopics
Domestic reasons for the emergence of independence movements
• Social factors, including racial discrimination and oppression
• Economic conditions
• Colonial administration, including involvement of Africans
• Actions of colonial settlers
External reasons for the emergence of independence movements
• Role of ideas
• Success of movements in other countries
• Post-war economic and political weaknesses of the colonial power
• Impact of the Cold War
Emergence and growth of pro-independence political parties
• Importance of political leaders and charismatic leadership
• Political organization
• Role of strategy and ideology
• Internal party divisions and divisions caused by rival parties
Importance of non-violence in achieving independence
• Campaigning and building a popular support base
• Protests and strikes
• Negotiations with the colonial power
• Political, legal, constitutional and other responses by the colonial power
Importance of armed struggle in achieving independence
• Conventional and guerrilla warfare
• Response of the colonial power
• Support of other countries
• Role of military leaders
Impact of independence movements
• Political impact, including emergence of new Indigenous leaders
• Social impacts, including emergence of new forms of identity
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
6 subtopics
Reasons for the 1979 revolution in Iran
• Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 coup
• Mohammad-Reza Shah and the White Revolution
• External influence, including the role of the UK and USA
• Religious factors, including the role of Ruhollah (Ayatollah) Khomeini
Impact of post-revolution Iran
• Political and economic developments
• Foreign relations
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
Impact of the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988)
• Economic impact
• Social impact
• Regional and global involvement in the conflict
• Impact of technology, including Iraqi use of chemical weapons
Impact of Gamal Abdel Nasser’s rule in Egypt (from 1954)
• Domestic politics, including authoritarianism
• Economic transformation and modernization
• Social and cultural change
• Regional politics, including Pan-Arabism, the Suez Crisis and relations with Israel
Reasons for the 2011 Egyptian revolution
• Presidency and assassination of Anwar Sadat
• Hosni Mubarak’s presidency and the impact of domestic policies
• Economic and demographic challenges
• External factors
Impact of Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) on regional politics
• Initial involvement of PLO
• Deepening of conflict with involvement of Syria, Israel and Iran
• Foreign and UN involvement
• Establishment of Hezbollah
6 subtopics
Reasons for the emergence of authoritarian rule
• Impact of colonial legacies
• Results of independence and resistance movements
• Role of individuals, including personal ambition
• Role of ideology
Move to multi-party democracy in the 1980s and 1990s
• Foreign influence
• Failures of single-party states
• Ideological factors
• Role of popular and elite support for reform
Reasons for economic growth and development (to 2020)
• Political stability and reform
• Role of individuals and entrepreneurs
• Investment and development of infrastructure
• Impact of technology
Social challenges (to 2020)
• Health, including disease and famine
• Education, including scale of illiteracy
• Demographics
• Gender inequality and marginalized groups
Causes of coups d’état and civil wars
• Ethnic tensions
• Economic problems, including inequality
• Environmental factors
• Failures of civilian governments
Impact of external involvement
• International rivalries and destabilization by outside forces
• Neocolonialism
• African Union
• UN
6 subtopics
Establishment and maintenance of political authority
• Centralized rulers and local leaders, and the relationship between them
• Religion and warfare as a means of legitimizing power
• Administration, codes of conduct and law
• Alliances among different communities
Establishment and maintenance of economic structures
• Extent and limits of sedentary organization
• Landholding, agricultural production and irrigation control
• Role of tribute
• Reciprocity, trade networks and role of marketplaces
Establishment and maintenance of social organization
• Social hierarchies and gender roles
• Family structure and kinship
• Organization of tribes and clans
• Construction of identities
Impact of warfare on Indigenous societies
• Expansion and conquest
• Wealth accumulation, including looting and pillaging
• Military organization and warfare tactics
• Subjugation and enslavement of other Indigenous peoples
Role of culture in maintaining Indigenous societies
• Language
• Religion
• The arts
• Relationship with the natural world
Challenges faced by Indigenous societies
• Threats from other Indigenous societies in the region
• Environmental factors
• Social factors, including overpopulation
• Political factors, including weaknesses of political organization
6 subtopics
Initial impact of European exploration
• Military conquest and defeat of Indigenous societies
• Acquisition and exploitation of natural resources, including gold and silver
• Trade in resources, including fur and tobacco
• Columbian Exchange
Early treatment of Indigenous peoples by colonial governments
• Use of Indigenous labour, including encomienda, yanaconaje and mita
• Social impact, including assimilation and social stratification
• Colonial plantations
• Experiences of Indigenous women
Reasons for the development of the system of transatlantic slavery
• Role of ideas
• Economic factors
• Political factors
• Role of different colonial powers, including Portugal, the UK, France, the Netherlands and Spain
Impact of the system of transatlantic slavery
• Economic and political impact
• Social and cultural impact, including experiences of Indigenous societies
• Conditions of living and working on plantations
• Experiences of enslaved women
Resistance by enslaved peoples
• Day-to-day resistance
• Cultural resistance
• Rebellions
• Escape, including the establishment of communities of escaped enslaved peoples
Emergence and growth of early opposition to slavery
• Role of ideas in the abolitionist movement
• Religious leaders and groups
• Role of formerly enslaved peoples
• Role of technology in the spread of antislavery ideas
6 subtopics
Reasons for the emergence of independence movements
• Political and economic factors
• Social and religious factors
• Influence of Enlightenment ideas
• Actions of the colonial power
Contributions of key leaders to the success of independence movements
• Intellectual contribution
• Political contribution, including role in declaring independence
• Military contribution
• Mobilization of popular support
Reasons for the outcome of revolutionary wars
• Military organization
• Strategies and tactics
• Foreign support and regional collaboration
• Weaknesses of the colonial power
Establishment of new nation states
• Political factors, including creation of a constitution
• Relations with neighbouring countries, including establishment of national borders and new diplomatic relations
• Creation of a national identity
• Role of leaders in the state
Post-independence challenges for new nation states
• Economic challenges, including costs of wars of independence
• External military threats
• Disputes over leadership of the new state
• Treatment and experiences of marginalized groups, including Indigenous peoples, African Americans, Creoles
Impact of US relations with independent states in Latin America
• US support for independence movements
• Monroe Doctrine
• Plans for cooperation and American integration
• Intra-American trade relations
6 subtopics
Impact of the system of slavery on the USA
• Economic impacts of the cotton economy
• Conditions of enslavement
• Adaptation and resistance
• Political impacts, including the abolitionist debate
Long-term causes of the Civil War
• The Nullification Crisis
• States’ rights
• Sectionalism
• Economic, cultural and social differences between the North and South
Short-term causes of the Civil War
• Compromise of 1850
• Kansas–Nebraska Act and Bleeding Kansas
• Dred Scott vs Sandford and John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry
• Presidential election of 1860 and impact on Secession
Reasons for the outcome of the Civil War
• Military and economic strengths and weaknesses of the Union and the Confederacy
• Role of political and military leaders, including Abraham Lincoln
• Role of the Emancipation Proclamation and African American participation
• Role of foreign relations
Impact of the Civil War
• Political impact
• Economic impact
• Social and cultural impact
• Experiences of women
Successes and failures of Reconstruction
• Presidential and Congressional Reconstruction, including the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments
• Southern resistance, Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and Black Codes
• Actions taken by formerly enslaved peoples
• Compromise of 1877
6 subtopics
Economic transformation
• Railroad construction
• Industrial growth and urbanization
• Development of international and inter-American trade
• Neocolonialism and dependency
Impacts of migration
• Arrival of European and/or Asian immigrants
• Changes to the allocation and use of land
• Changes to religion
• Impact on, and experiences of, Indigenous peoples
Impact of ideological trends on the transformation of nations
• Nationalism, liberalism and progressivism
• Social Darwinism
• Expansionist ideas
• “Indigenismo” and nativism
Political and social transformations
• Constitutional reforms
• Development of a party system
• Expansion of democracy, including women’s suffrage
• Developments in the arts
Role of leaders in the transformation of nations
• Intellectual contribution
• Political contribution
• Social policies
• Mobilization of popular support
Challenges in the transformation of nations
• Economic challenges, including inequality
• Experiences of marginalized groups
• Labour movements, unions and strikes
• Internal conflicts
6 subtopics
Reasons for the outbreak of the revolution
• Social factors
• Economic factors
• Political factors
• Rule of Porfirio Díaz
Impact of revolutionary leaders on the revolution
• Francisco Madero
• Victoriano Huerta
• Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata
• Venustiano Carranza
Impact of the 1917 Constitution
• Land reforms and property rights
• Labour reform
• Impact on the church
• Education reforms
Achievements and challenges of the post-revolutionary state (1920–1940)
• Álvaro Obregón
• Plutarco Elías Calles and the Maximato
• Opposition and Cristero War
• Lázaro Cárdenas and renewal of the revolution
Foreign contributions to the revolution
• Motivations for involvement
• Military interventions
• Economic intervention, including supply of arms
• Diplomatic intervention
Impact of the revolution
• Economic impact
• Culture, education and the arts
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
6 subtopics
Reasons for the Great Depression
• Political factors, including failures of regulation
• Economic factors, including the banking system and trade
• Agricultural and environmental factors
• Reactions to 1929 Wall Street Crash
Political impact of the Great Depression in the USA
• Impact on party politics
• Expansion of executive power and role of federal government
• Labour rights and social policies
• Opposition to the New Deal
Political impact of the Great Depression in one country of the Americas (excluding the USA)
• Impact on political stability
• Changes to political power
• Labour rights and social policies
• Opposition to government reforms
Social impact of the Great Depression in one country in the Americas
• Demography and standard of living
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
• Impact on culture and the arts
Effectiveness of solutions in the USA and Canada
• Herbert Hoover
• Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal
• William Lyon Mackenzie King
• R. B. Bennett
Effectiveness of solutions in one country in Latin America
• Agrarian reforms
• Nationalization programmes
• Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)
• Labour rights and social programmes
6 subtopics
Reasons for US expansionist foreign policy
• Political factors
• Economic factors
• Social factors
• Role of ideology
Impact of US expansionist foreign policy
• Spanish–American War (1898)
• Roosevelt Corollary and “big stick” diplomacy
• Dollar diplomacy
• Moral diplomacy
Changing regional and global role of the USA
• Participation in the First World War
• Woodrow Wilson’s peace ideals and the decision not to join the League of Nations
• Good Neighbor Policy and inter-American diplomatic agreements
• Participation in the Second World War, including development and use of the atomic bomb
Changing regional and global role of one country in the Americas (excluding the USA)
• Decision to participate or remain neutral in the First World War
• Membership and involvement in the League of Nations
• Decision to participate or remain neutral in the Second World War
• Economic and trading relations
Domestic impact of the First World War on one country in the Americas
• Economic and social impact
• Political impact
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
Domestic impact of the Second World War on one country in the Americas
• Economic and social impact
• Political impact
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
6 subtopics
Impact of the Cold War on the Americas during the presidencies of Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower
• Truman’s containment policy
• McCarthyism
• Eisenhower’s New Look policy
• US intervention in Latin America, including role of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
Cuban Revolution and its impact on the Americas
• Regional reactions to the revolution
• Bay of Pigs
• Cuban Missile Crisis
• Diplomatic impact in Latin America
Impact of the Cold War on the Americas during the presidencies of John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson
• Kennedy’s Alliance for Progress
• Intervention in the Dominican Republic
• Domestic impact of Johnson’s policy in Vietnam
• Regional support for, and opposition to, US involvement in Vietnam
Impact of US foreign policies on the Americas (1968–1988)
• School of the Americas and the Condor Plan
• Richard Nixon’s covert operations and Chile
• Jimmy Carter’s quest for human rights and the Panama Canal Treaty (1977)
• Ronald Reagan and the Contras in Nicaragua
Impact of the Cold War on Canada
• Domestic anti-Communism
• North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD)
• Creation of UN peacekeeping forces
• Cooperation and tension with the USA
Impact of the Cold War on one country in Latin America
• Rio Pact, Organization of American States (OAS) and regional collaboration
• Domestic political impact of the Cold War
• Cooperation and tension with the USA
• Cooperation and tension with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
6 subtopics
Reasons for the Cuban Revolution
• Political factors, including role of Fulgencio Batista
• Economic factors, including role of the USA
• Social factors
• Role of Fidel Castro and Che Guevara
Maintenance of power and impact of rule of Fidel Castro
• Political policies
• Social policies, including Cuban nationalism
• Economic policies
• Treatment of opposition
Emerging challenges in one Latin American country
• Growth of populism
• Growth of guerrilla movements
• Crisis of democracy and failure of elected leaders
• Rise of military dictatorship
Impact of a guerrilla movement on one country in Latin America
• Social impacts
• Political impacts
• Economic impacts
• Experiences of women
Impact of, and maintenance of power by, military dictatorship on one country in Latin America
• Social factors
• Political factors
• Economic factors
• Suppression of opposition
Reasons for the emergence of democratization in one country in Latin America
• Political factors
• Economic factors
• Social factors
• Role of transitional justice
6 subtopics
Challenges and successes in domestic politics of the USA (1961–1977)
• Social policies, including New Frontier and Great Society
• Watergate scandal and pardon of Nixon
• Changes and internal conflicts within the Democratic and Republican parties in the 1960s and 1970s, and impact on elections
• Roles of Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon and Gerald Ford
Challenges and successes in domestic politics of the USA (1977–2001)
• Economic policies, including Reaganomics
• Social policies, including the War on Drugs
• Economic growth and transition in the 1990s
• Roles of Carter, Reagan, George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton
Challenges and successes in domestic politics of the USA (2001–2020)
• 2001 terrorist attacks on the USA
• 2008 financial crisis
• Growth of political division
• Roles of George W. Bush, Barack Obama and Donald Trump
Challenges and successes in domestic politics of Canada (1963–1993)
• Social policies
• Economic policies
• Collapse of the Progressive Conservative Party
• Roles of Lester B. Pearson, Pierre Trudeau, Joe Clark and Brian Mulroney
Causes and effects of the Quiet Revolution
• Rise of Quebec nationalism
• Front de libération du Québec (FLQ)
• October Crisis (1970)
• Quebec and separatism
Challenges and successes in domestic politics of Canada (1993–2020)
• Emergence of Conservative Party
• Truth and Reconciliation Commission (from 2008)
• 2008 financial crisis
• Roles of Jean Chrétien, Paul Martin, Stephen Harper and Justin Trudeau
6 subtopics
Reasons for emergence
• Military factors, including wars of conquest
• Economic factors
• Political factors, including alliances
• Environmental factors
Importance of leaders in the development of Asian kingdoms and empires
• Establishment of kingdom or empire
• Consolidation and maintenance of power
• Domestic and foreign success
• Responding to challenges
Domestic developments
• Social structures
• Culture and the arts
• Religious and/or spiritual beliefs
• Science and technology
Role of foreign relations in the development of Asian kingdoms and empires
• Alliances and diplomacy
• Cultural, artistic and scientific exchange of ideas
• Economic relations, including land and/or maritime trading routes
• Conflict
Maintenance of power
• Political factors
• Social factors
• Military factors
• Role of religious and/or spiritual beliefs
Challenges and decline
• Political factors, including factionalism
• Social and economic factors
• Conflict and rebellions
• Environmental factors
6 subtopics
Reasons for the rise of Mughal power
• First Battle of Panipat
• Impact of the Suri Dynasty (1540–1555)
• Second Battle of Panipat
• Role of Babur and Humayun
Consolidation of Mughal rule
• Akbar’s military conquests and policies of conciliation
• Mansabdari system
• Roles of Akbar, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb
• Religious policies
Challenges to Mughal rule
• Junta under Jahangir and Nur Jahan
• Domestic opposition and wars of succession
• The Deccan “Ulcer” (1680–1707) and rise of the Marathas
• Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb’s policies
Impact of the Mughal Empire
• Economic impact
• Cultural impact, including the arts, laws and architecture
• Experiences of women
• Syncretism, Bhakti movement and Sufism
Decline of the Mughals and establishment of East India Company rule
• Role of the East India Company
• Political factors, including use of alliances
• Weaknesses of the Mughal Empire
• Military factors and the use of force
Reasons for the end of the Mughals, the end of East India Company rule, and the establishment of direct rule
• Failures of East India Company rule
• Roles of Richard Wellesley, William Bentinck and James Broun-Ramsay (Dalhousie)
• Indian Rebellion of 1857
• Social, cultural and political reactions to the uprising
6 subtopics
Challenges to the Qianlong Emperor
• Social factors, including Confucianism and tributary system
• Political structure under Qianlong
• Growth of the empire
• White Lotus and Miao Rebellions
Efforts to “open up” China
• Canton trade system
• British trade missions by George Macartney, William Pitt Amherst and William Napier
• Opium trade
• Social and economic impact of opium
Reasons for, and impact of, the Opium Wars
• Chinese prohibitions of opium, including role of Lin Zexu
• European reactions
• Unequal Treaties of Nanjing (1842), Tianjin (1858) and Convention of Beijing (1860)
• Political, economic and cultural impact
Reasons for, and impact of, the Taiping Rebellion
• Environmental and economic factors
• Role of Hong Xiuquan
• Emergence of regional military leaders, including Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang
• Social impact of Taiping Heavenly Kingdom
Failure of the Qing Dynasty to reform
• Leadership of Empress Dowager Cixi and Yixin (Prince Gong)
• Self-Strengthening Movement
• First Sino–Japanese War and Treaty of Shimonoseki
• Hundred Days’ Reform
Decline and fall of the Qing Dynasty
• Boxer Rebellion and Boxer Protocol
• Late Qing Reforms
• Sun Yixian and Guomindang’s Three Principles
• Xinhai Revolution (1911) and Yuan Shikai
6 subtopics
Impact of colonization in Australia and New Zealand (to circa 1900)
• European immigration and settlement
• Land distribution, squatters and Selection Acts
• Social and economic impact of the gold rushes (1850–1870)
• Growth of cities and emergence of labour movement
Experiences of colonization by Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander and Māori peoples (to circa 1900)
• Social and demographic impact of colonial settlement
• Role of different world views on relationship to the land
• Conflict, including Australian Frontier Wars (1840–1934) and New Zealand/Māori wars (1845–1872)
• Role of Treaty of Waitangi (1840)
Reasons for the emergence of Australian and New Zealand nations
• Constitutional developments
• Federation Movement and National Australasian Conventions
• Growth of a national identity, including through arts and sport
• Achievement of dominion status in Australia (1901) and New Zealand (1907)
Impact of the First World War on Australia and New Zealand
• Political impact
• Social and economic impact
• Experiences of Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs), including Gallipoli
• Experiences of Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander and Māori peoples
Social and cultural developments after the Second World War in either Australia or New Zealand
• Immigration and the development of multicultural societies
• Social and economic government policies
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of either Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander or Māori peoples
Successes and failures of foreign policy after the Second World War in either Australia or New Zealand
• Changing relations with the UK
• Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty (ANZUS) and Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)
• Involvement in the Cold War
• Changing regional relations, including with Japan, China and the Pacific islands
6 subtopics
Mid-century challenges to the Korean monarchy
• Rise of Sedo (factional) politics and the weakening of royal authority
• Spread of Christianity
• Threat of Donghak learning
• Heungseon Daewongun’s reforms (1864–1873) and isolation policy
“Opening up” of Korea and regional responses
• Treaty of Ganghwa and Japan’s influence
• King Gojong’s reforms and the role of Queen Min
• Imo Incident and the return of Daewongun
• Gapsin Coup and the Chinese decade (1885–1894)
Impact of regional rivalries
• Donghak Peasant Revolution
• Gabo reforms (1894–1896)
• First Sino–Japanese War and Treaty of Shimonoseki
• Triple Intervention and Russian influence
Impact of reforms under the Korean Empire
• Gwangmu Reforms (1897–1904)
• Modernization of the state
• Independence Club (1896–1898)
• Korean resistance to Eulsa Treaty
Impact of Japanese rule
• Political impact of Japanese annexation and colonial government
• Repression and resistance, including Samil Independence Movement (1919)
• Social impact of assimilation, including education, language and religion
• Economic developments in banking, industry and infrastructure
Impact of the Second Sino–Japanese War
• Social impact, including forced labour, conscription and comfort women
• Political developments, including growth of nationalism and communism
• Economic impact of exploitation of industry and resources for Japanese war effort
• Liberation and establishment of the governments of Kim Il Sung and Syngman Rhee
6 subtopics
Reasons for the emergence of Indian nationalism
• 1857 uprising
• British policies in India (1858–1885)
• Violence, including Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919)
• Impact of the First World War
Impact of political developments in the British Raj
• Emergence of Indian National Congress
• Partition of Bengal (1905–1911) and rise of All-India Muslim League (1906)
• British political reforms, including Government of India Acts (1919, 1935)
• Round Table Conferences (1930–1932)
Methods used to achieve Indian independence
• Non-cooperation and civil disobedience
• Salt March (1930)
• Quit India Movement
• Political negotiations
Leaders and their importance in the independence movement
• Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi
• Jawaharlal Nehru
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah
• Subhas Chandra Bose
Reasons for, and impact of, the Partition of India
• Rise of Muslim separatism, including “Two-Nation” theory and Lahore Resolution (1940)
• British political actions, including Cabinet Mission Plan, and role of Louis Mountbatten
• Migration and violence
• Experiences of women and different ethnic groups
Challenges in post-independence India
• Nehru and nation-building
• Ethnic and religious conflict
• Integration of the princely states, including Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kashmir
• Foreign policy and cross-border conflicts
6 subtopics
Social and economic impact of early colonialism
• Political impact, including “divide and rule” tactics
• Economic impact, including exploitation of resources
• Social impact, including social stratification and displacement of Indigenous peoples
• Cultural impact, including challenges to traditional religious practices
Origins of nationalism and independence movements
• Role of ideas
• Economic factors, including colonial exploitation
• Political factors, including oppressive colonial rule
• Shared ethnic, linguistic and religious identity
Growth of nationalist movements (from 1914)
• Influence of liberalism, democracy and self-determination
• Influence of communism and/or socialism
• Impact of the First World War, Treaty of Versailles and League of Nations
• Role and importance of leaders
Impact of the Second World War on Southeast Asia
• Establishment and maintenance of Japanese rule, including violence, propaganda, and “divide and rule”
• Political and economic impact of Japanese occupation
• Social impact of Japanese rule, including on women and ethnic groups
• Emergence of independence leaders
Post-war methods used to achieve independence
• Political factors, including mass mobilization
• Role of conflict and resistance
• Impact of external support
• Weaknesses of colonial authority
Achievements and challenges in the first 10 years of independence
• Social developments, including education, healthcare and gender equality
• Economic developments
• Political instability
• Ethnic and religious tensions
6 subtopics
Rise of national identity in China
• Establishment of the Chinese Republic (1912)
• Yuan Shikai and the effects of warlordism
• Sun Yixian and Guomindang’s Three Principles
• New Culture Movement
Impact of the First World War on the development of nationalism
• Nature of Chinese involvement in the First World War
• Twenty-One Demands (1915)
• Treaty of Versailles and League of Nations
• May Fourth Movement (1919) and emergence of Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
Impact of Guomindang rule of China
• Sun–Joffe Manifesto and First United Front
• Guomindang ideology and Jiang Jieshi’s leadership
• Domestic policy during the Nanjing decade (1927–1937)
• Impact of Japanese occupation of Manchuria (1931)
Reasons for the rise of communism in China (to 1936)
• Collapse of First United Front and Shanghai massacre (1927)
• Jiangxi Soviet and Encirclement Campaigns (1931–1934)
• Long March and Zunyi Conference (1934–1935)
• Yan’an Soviet and the leadership of Mao Zedong
Impact of the Second Sino–Japanese War (1937–1945)
• Political impact, including Xi’an Incident and Second United Front
• Japanese military rule, including Three Alls Policy
• Guerrilla warfare and “trading space for time”
• Economic and social impact, including hyperinflation
Reasons for the outcome of the Chinese Civil War (1946–1949)
• Military strategies, including guerrilla and conventional warfare
• Peasant support for CCP
• Roles of Mao Zedong and Jiang Jieshi
• Involvement of the USA and USSR
6 subtopics
Impact of the First World War on Japan
• Military impact of the conflict
• Paris Peace Conference and League of Nations
• Washington Naval Conference
• Expansion of Japanese power in the Pacific
Domestic achievements and challenges in the 1920s
• Liberal reforms under Taishō
• Political developments in Shōwa era (from 1926)
• Ultra nationalist and anti-democratic beliefs, including Black Dragon Society and Imperial Way Faction
• The Great Depression
Growth of Japanese imperialism
• Rising militarism, assassinations and coups
• Manchuria (1931) and the Second Sino–Japanese War (1937–1945)
• Expansion of empire and the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
• Tripartite Pact
Reasons for Japanese defeat in the Second World War
• US embargo (1940) and decision to attack Pearl Harbor
• Military factors
• Political factors
• Impact of war on home front
Recovery and growth in post-war Japan
• US occupation and reconstruction
• Reverse Course (1947–1952)
• Reasons for “economic miracle”, including Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI)
• Impact of globalization (1960s–1980s)
Economic, political and social challenges (1989–2020)
• “Lost Decade” and economic stagnation
• Political instability
• Regional foreign relations
• Work culture, declining birth rate and ageing population
6 subtopics
Impact of the Russian Revolution and Civil War (1917–1924)
• Economic and social impact
• Resistance of local elites and intelligentsia
• Political and military response of the Bolsheviks
• Creation of Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics (ASSRs)
Impact of Soviet control and policies in the ASSR (1920–1940)
• Political control, including the Soviet constitution and Russification (1936)
• Repression, resistance and extent of totalitarian control
• Economic policies, including collectivization
• Impact on society, culture and identity
Impact of the Second World War (1941–1945)
• Military impact of participation
• Political impact
• Economic impact
• Social impact
Impact of changing Soviet policies in the ASSRs
• Post-war reconstruction and reorganization
• Social, political and economic impact of the policies of Nikita Khrushchev
• Social, political and economic impact of the policies of Leonid Brezhnev
• Environmental impact of Soviet policies
Reasons for the establishment of independent Central Asian republics
• Impact of Gorbachev’s policies, including glasnost and perestroika
• Collapse of the USSR
• Protest and resistance
• Role of political leaders, including declarations of independence
Challenges and successes of nation-building (1991–2020)
• Economic and social policies
• Political leadership and opposition
• National identity, ethnicity and experiences of marginalized groups
• Foreign relations, including with Russia, China and the USA
6 subtopics
Reasons for the Korean War (1950–1953)
• Division of Korea and disagreements over free elections
• Leadership of Kim Il Sung and Syngman Rhee
• Role of the USA, USSR and China
• Invasion of South Korea and UN response
Impact of the war on North and South Korea and the region (to 1963)
• Political impact, including Armistice negotiations and creation of the demilitarized zone (DMZ)
• Social impact, including displacement and refugee crisis
• Economic and environmental destruction and reconstruction
• Impact on China and Japan’s regional positions
Reasons for conflict in Vietnam (1954–1975)
• Legacy of French colonialism and Japanese occupation
• Điện Biên Phủ, Geneva Accords (1954) and division of Vietnam
• Hồ Chí Minh and Ngô Đình Diệm’s leadership and ideology
• Role of the USA, USSR and China
Impact of the Vietnam conflict (to 1985)
• Impact of US and Vietcong tactics, including “search and destroy” missions, bombing campaigns, chemical warfare and guerrilla warfare
• Political impact, including US troop withdrawal and Vietnam’s reunification
• Economic and environmental destruction and reconstruction
• Destabilization of Cambodia (to 1975)
Reasons for conflict in Afghanistan (1979–1992)
• Ethnic and religious tensions
• Saur Revolution and establishment of a pro-Soviet communist government
• Mujahideen insurgencies
• Role of the USA, USSR and Pakistan
Impact of the conflict in Afghanistan (to 2002)
• Impact of 1979 Soviet invasion, including guerrilla warfare and effects on civilians
• Economic and environmental destruction
• Soviet withdrawal, civil war, and ethnic and tribal factionalism (1989–1992)
• Emergence of Taliban rule, including Sharia Law
6 subtopics
Mao consolidation and maintenance of power (1949–1976)
• Control of CCP and People’s Liberation Army (PLA)
• Hundred Flowers Campaign (1956)
• The Three- and Five- Antis, and Anti-Rightist Campaigns
• Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution and cult of personality
Economic and social transformations and challenges under Mao (1949–1976)
• Land Reform Movement (1949–1952) and First Five-Year Plan
• Great Leap Forward
• Changing role of women, including the Marriage Law (1950)
• Education, healthcare and religion
Foreign policy successes and failures under Mao (1949–1976)
• Involvement in the Korean War
• Sino–Soviet split (1961) and the non-aligned movement
• Sino–Indian War (1962)
• Relations with the USA, including “ping–pong” diplomacy
Impact of political developments (1976–2020)
• Power struggle following death of Mao, including Hua Guofeng and emergence of Deng Xiaoping
• Tiananmen Square (1989)
• Jiang Zemin and Theory of Three Represents
• Rise to power and early rule of Xi Jinping
Economic and social transformations and challenges (1976–2020)
• Four Modernizations (1978–1997) and Opening Up policy
• China’s emergence as an economic power, including joining the World Trade Organization (WTO) (1998–2012)
• Rural–urban divide and regional migration
• Population control and one-child policy
Foreign policy successes and failures (1976–2020)
• Changing regional relations
• Changing relations with the USSR/Russia
• Changing relations with the USA
• Belt and Road Initiative (from 2013)
6 subtopics
Reasons for emergence and expansion
• Economic factors
• Political and dynastic factors
• Social and cultural factors
• Role of conflict and settlement
Legitimization, consolidation and maintenance of authority
• Legal and political methods
• Social factors, including roles of nobility, officials and elite
• Economic factors, including taxation
• Use of force
Impact of religion
• Political impact, including legitimizing authority
• Development of religious institutions
• Social impact
• Role of the papacy
Cultural and social developments
• Developments in technology
• Developments in the arts
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
Reasons for decline
• Internal challenges, including rebellion
• Economic and social challenges
• Political challenges, including rivalries and issues of succession
• External threats
Role and importance of one leader in the kingdom/empire
• In emergence and expansion
• In consolidating and maintaining rule
• In religion, culture and society
• In the decline of the kingdom/empire
6 subtopics
Emergence of the Renaissance in Italy
• Social and political conditions
• Intellectual and religious influences
• Economic factors
• Role of individuals, including papal patronage, Medici and Sforza
Emergence of the Renaissance in one country in Europe, excluding Italy
• Spread of ideas
• Social and political conditions
• Economic factors
• Intellectual and religious influences
Impact of the Renaissance on one country in Europe
• Literature
• Political ideas
• Science
• The arts
Emergence of the Reformation
• State of the Catholic Church in Europe at the start of the 16th century
• Impact of ideas and the spread of Lutheranism
• Response to Martin Luther from the Catholic Church and Holy Roman Emperor
• Role of the printing press
Impact of the Reformation on one country in Europe
• Religious changes
• Social and political developments
• Economic developments
• Thirty Years' War
Responses of the Catholic Church and the Counter-Reformation
• Role of Erasmus
• Council of Trent (1545–1563)
• Role and impact of Popes Paul III, Paul IV and Pius IV
• Role of the Jesuits
6 subtopics
Emergence of Enlightenment ideas
• Intellectual influences, including ancient ideas, Renaissance and Scientific Revolution
• Political conditions
• Religious factors, including role of the Reformation
• Role of individuals
Developments during the Enlightenment era
• Economic change
• Social change, including growth of cities
• Scientific and technological developments
• Changes in agriculture
Impact of Enlightenment ideas
• Political ideas, including opposition to absolute monarchy and emergence of the idea of the enlightened despot
• Social ideas, including equality and individual rights
• Economic ideas
• Women's rights
Maintenance of power by one enlightened despot
• Use of ideas to legitimize rule
• Centralization of power
• Use of force
• Image and depiction of the monarch
Domestic impact of one enlightened despot
• Political, administrative, and legal reform and modernization
• Developments in the arts
• Religious reform
• Economic reform, including impact on agriculture and the environment
Foreign policy of one enlightened despot
• Conflict and territorial disputes
• Commercial agreements and trade
• Diplomacy
• Colonial policy
6 subtopics
Reasons for the revolution
• Intellectual, economic and social factors
• Role of Louis XVI
• Estates General (1789)
• National Assembly and Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)
Radicalization of the revolution
• Constitution of 1791
• End of the monarchy
• Maximilien Robespierre and The Terror (1793–1794)
• Thermidorean Reaction
Rise of Napoleon
• French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802)
• The Directory (1795–1799), including reasons for its fall
• 18 Brumaire (1799)
• Creation of the French Empire (1804)
Social change in revolutionary and Napoleonic France
• Impact of Napoleon Bonaparte's domestic policies on France, including the economy
• Impact of Napoleon's foreign policy on France
• Impact on religion and the church
• Experiences of women
Impact of Napoleonic rule on any one country in the French empire or French colonial empire, excluding France
• Political impact
• Social impact
• Economic impact
• Experiences of marginalized groups
Decline and defeat of the First French Empire
• Coalitions
• Continental System, including its impact on France
• Invasion of Russia (1812)
• 100 Days and Waterloo (1815)
6 subtopics
Impact of the Congress System on Germany and Italy
• Congress of Vienna (1815)
• Dominance of Austria
• Role and impact of Klemens von Metternich
• Holy Alliance and Congress System
Growth of nationalism and liberalism in Italy (1815–1848)
• Intellectual origins
• Attempted revolutions (1820–1844)
• Role and impact of Giuseppe Mazzini and Vincenzo Gioberti
• Role and impact of the papacy
Growth of nationalism and liberalism in Germany (1815–1848)
• Intellectual origins
• Nature of monarchy during the Vormärz period
• Rise of Prussia
• Zollverein
Impact of the 1848 revolutions in Germany and Italy
• Emergence of new ideas
• Role of the middle classes and intellectuals
• Political impact, including the re-establishment of autocracy
• Social and cultural impact
Unification of Italy (1849–1871)
• Role of Camillo Benso di Cavour
• Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi
• Role of foreign influence
• Social and economic factors
Unification of Germany and the establishment of the German Empire (1849–1871)
• Role of Otto von Bismarck
• Military reorganization
• Wars of unification, including the Franco–Prussian War (1870–1871)
• Decline of Austria
6 subtopics
Maintenance of peace and stability, and the changing balance of power in Europe (after 1871)
• Impact of imperial expansion on European diplomacy
• Congress of Berlin (1878) and the Balkans
• Decline of the Ottoman Empire
• European alliance system (1871–1890)
Causes and impact of German foreign policy before the First World War
• Domestic conditions that impacted on German foreign policy
• Role of Wilhelm II
• Weltpolitik
• Responses of other countries and regions (territories), including the UK, France, Russia and Austria–Hungary
Reasons for the First World War
• Austria–Hungary, Russia and Balkan nationalism
• Arms race
• Diplomatic crises
• Alliance system (1890–1914) and the July Crisis of 1914
Reasons for the defeat of Germany and the other Central Powers
• Military strategy of the Central Powers and Allied Powers
• Economic and technological factors
• Entry of the USA, and its economic and military significance
• Mobilization of the home fronts
Impact of the First World War on one European country (to 1923)
• Social impact
• Economic impact
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
Impact of the Paris Peace Treaties (1919–1923)
• Aims of participants, including the Big Three
• Negotiations and terms of treaties of Versailles, St. Germain, Neuilly, Trianon, Sèvres and Lausanne
• Reactions to the peace settlement
• Economic and political impact (to 1923)
6 subtopics
Impact of the policies of Alexander II (1855–1881), Alexander III (1881–1894) and Nicholas II (1894–1917)
• Social reform
• Economic modernization
• Tsarist repression
• Growth of opposition
Causes and impact of the 1905 Revolution
• Role of ideas
• Social and economic factors
• Significance of the Russo–Japanese War
• Political factors, including October Manifesto and Fundamental Laws
Impact of policies of repression and reform (1905–1917)
• Dumas
• Agrarian and industrial reform
• Use of violence, including the Okhrana
• Role of Pyotr Stolypin
Reasons for the October/November Revolution and rise to power of the Bolsheviks
• Impact of the First World War
• February/March Revolution and establishment of Dual Power between the Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet
• Failures and collapse of the Provisional Government
• Roles of Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky
Survival and consolidation of Bolshevik rule
• Treaty of Brest–Litovsk (1918)
• Russian Civil War (1917–1922)
• Terror and coercion
• War Communism and New Economic Policy (NEP)
Impact of Bolshevik rule (to 1924)
• Social policies, including religion
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
• Experiences of different classes
6 subtopics
Benito Mussolini's rise and consolidation of power (1918–1926)
• Weakness of the liberal state
• March on Rome
• Acerbo Law and the assassination of Giacomo Matteotti
• Consolidation of power (1924–1926)
Domestic impact of Mussolini's Italy (to 1940)
• Economic policies and the corporate state
• Social policies
• Propaganda and the cult of personality
• Repression and resistance, and extent of totalitarian control
Failure of Weimar Germany, and Adolf Hitler's rise and consolidation of power (1918–1934)
• Constitutional, political, economic and social challenges (1918–1929)
• “Golden Era” under Gustav Stresemann (1924–1929)
• The Great Depression and years of crisis (1929–1933)
• Reichstag fire (1933), Enabling Act (1933), Night of the Long Knives (1934), Hitler Oath (1934) and popular support
Domestic impact of Hitler's Germany (to 1939)
• Economic policies including Hjalmar Schacht's New Plan (1934) and Hermann Göring's Four-Year Plan (1936)
• Social policies, including Volksgemeinschaft and attempts to create a racially pure state
• Propaganda and the cult of personality
• Repression, resistance and the extent of totalitarian control
Joseph Stalin's rise and consolidation of power (to 1941)
• Stalin's position as General Secretary
• Weaknesses of Stalin's opponents, including Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Trotsky and Nikolaï Bukharin
• Consolidation of power, including Ryutin Platform and death of Sergei Kirov
• Political impact of the purges and Great Terror up to 1941
Domestic impact of Stalin's USSR (to 1941)
• Economic policies, including impact of collectivization and Five-Year Plans
• Social policies
• Propaganda and the cult of personality
• Repression and resistance, and the extent of totalitarian control
6 subtopics
Successes and challenges of the League of Nations in Europe
• Aims, organization and structure
• Responses to disputes in the 1920s, including Åland Islands, Vilna and Corfu
• Search for collective security and disarmament
• Responses to crises in the 1930s, including Italy's invasion of Abyssinia (1935)
Reasons for the Second World War in Europe
• Italian and German foreign policies (1919–1941)
• Appeasement, Neville Chamberlain and Munich Agreement (1938)
• Role of British, French and Soviet foreign policies
• Nazi–Soviet Pact and invasion of Poland
Reasons for Axis defeat and Allied victory (to 1945)
• Political leadership, including wartime alliance (UK, USA and USSR)
• Economic factors
• Strategic and military factors
• Strengths and weaknesses of Allied and Axis powers
Impact of the Second World War on one European country (to 1949)
• Social and economic impact
• Political impact
• Experiences of women
• Experiences of marginalized groups
Reasons for the persecution and mass murder of marginalized groups in Nazi-occupied Europe during the Second World War
• Long-term factors, including the role of ideology
• Military factors, including the invasions of Poland and the USSR, and the role of the Einsatzgruppen
• Political factors, including role of Nazi leaders and Wannsee Conference (1942)
• Collaboration by individuals and groups within Germany and occupied territories
Responses to the persecution and mass murder of marginalized groups in Nazi-occupied Europe (to 1949)
• Resistance by individuals
• Collective protest, resistance movements and solidarity between groups
• Level of international response
• Legal responses, including Nuremberg
6 subtopics
Impact of policies in post-war USSR (1945–1953)
• Post-war reconstruction
• Domestic political developments
• Economic developments
• Experiences of Soviet and Axis prisoners of war
Impact of Nikita Khrushchev's rule (1953–1964)
• Secret Speech and de-Stalinization
• Domestic economic and social policies
• Technology and the Space Race
• Khrushchev's removal from power
Impact of reaction and re-centralization (1964–1982)
• Alexei Kosygin's economic policies (1964–1970)
• Brezhnev's economic and political policies
• Growth of the nomenklatura
• Nature and treatment of dissidents
Impact of reform and transformation under Gorbachev (1985–1991)
• Economic policies and perestroika
• Glasnost and democratization
• Growth of opposition
• August coup and its aftermath
Challenges of the transition to post-Soviet Russia (1991–1999)
• Failure to establish democracy and re-emergence of the Communist Party
• Role of Yeltsin
• Economic policies and rise of oligarchs
• War in Chechnya
Impact of Vladimir Putin on Russia (2000–2020)
• Political reforms and re-emergence of an authoritarian state
• Economic and social policies
• Propaganda, repression and resistance, and extent of control
• Conflicts with neighbouring states
6 subtopics
Emergence of the Cold War in Europe
• Breakdown of the wartime alliance by 1949
• Ideological differences
• Roles of Stalin and Truman
• Economic factors, including the Marshall Plan
Impact of the Cold War on Germany (1945–1991)
• Berlin Blockade (1949)
• Berlin Wall Crisis (1961) and division of Germany
• Social and cultural experiences of East and West Germany (1961–1990)
• Reasons for reunification (1990)
Impact of the Cold War on Western and Northern Europe
• Establishment and role of NATO
• Economic changes, including European Economic Community (EEC)
• Social impact of the Cold War
• Changing relations with the USA
Impact of the Cold War on Central and Eastern Europe
• Motives and methods of establishing Soviet domination, including the Warsaw Pact
• Impact of Soviet economic policies, including the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON)
• Social impact of Soviet control
• Opposition to Soviet control, including Josip Broz Tito and Yugoslavia
Impact of European political integration after the Cold War (to 2020)
• EU and expansion after 1990
• Economic policies and their impact
• Social policies and their impact
• Political resistance to the EU, including Brexit (2016)
Post-Cold War developments in one European country (to 2020)
• Social changes
• Economic changes
• Cultural changes
• Relations with the rest of Europe
Organised according to the official IBDP curriculum structure.
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